Assignment : 210 : Quest for identity in selected works of Afro-American writers

Quest for identity in selected works of Afro-American writers

Name - Himanshi Parmar

Semester - 4 (Four)

Roll Number - 8

Email. Id. - himanshiparmar3004@gmail.com

Enrollment number - 4069206420210025

Paper number - 210

Paper name -  Research Project Writing: Dissertation Writing

Subject Code - 22417

At the end I conclude my point by summarizing the entire research work. In the introduction part information about Afro American terms, African Writers, diaspora and identity crisis, information about Toni Morrison and Alice Walker along with their notable works are given. Main theory of the following dissertation is Quest for Identity. The research particularly focuses on African American writers and their works. Two works that are taken here in research are 'The Color Purple' by Alice Walker and 'The Bluest Eye' by Toni Morrison.

The Quest for identity is a common theme in African American literature, particularly in Alice Walker's The Color Purple and Toni Morrison's The Bluest Eye. Both novels explore the ways in which racism, sexism, and other forms of oppression can affect an individual's sense of self-worth, as well as the ways in which personal and communal resilience can help to overcome these challenges. Through their depictions of complex and nuanced characters, both novels offer important insights into the experiences of black women and girls, and the ways in which they navigate the intersection of race, gender, and identity in a society that often denies their worth and value.

In The Color Purple, Alice Walker tells the story of Celie, a young black woman who is forced to endure years of abuse and trauma at the hands of her stepfather and husband. Through her experiences, Celie learns to reclaim her own sense of self-worth, as well as the power of personal agency and resilience. She forms close relationships with other women in her community, including her sister Nettie and her friend Shug Avery, and through these connections she is able to find the strength to overcome her past and forge a new identity for herself.

Similarly, in The Bluest Eye, Toni Morrison tells the story of Pecola Breedlove, a young black girl who is subjected to a lifetime of abuse and trauma, both within her family and in her wider community. Pecola's quest for identity is closely tied to her desire for blue eyes, which she believes will make her beautiful and therefore worthy of love and acceptance. Through the experiences of Pecola and other characters in the novel, Morrison explores the ways in which racism and other forms of oppression can shape an individual's sense of self-worth, as well as the importance of communal support and resilience in the face of these challenges.

Comparing the two novels, we see that both The Color Purple and The Bluest Eye are concerned with issues of identity and self-worth, particularly as they relate to the experiences of black women and girls. However, while The Color Purple focuses primarily on the experiences of adult women, The Bluest Eye centers on the experiences of young girls, highlighting the ways in which the effects of racism and other forms of oppression can begin early in life and have long-lasting consequences.

Another key difference between the two novels is their use of language and narrative structure. Alice Walker employs a range of dialects and narrative voices in The Color Purple, creating a rich and nuanced portrayal of her characters' experiences. Toni Morrison, on the other hand, uses a more experimental narrative structure in The Bluest Eye, incorporating elements of magical realism and moving back and forth in time to create a complex and layered portrait of her characters' inner lives.

Despite these differences, both The Color Purple and The Bluest Eye offer powerful critiques of the ways in which racism, sexism, and other forms of oppression can shape an individual's sense of self-worth, as well as the ways in which personal and communal resilience can help to overcome these challenges. Through their vivid depictions of complex and nuanced characters, both novels offer important insights into the experiences of black women and girls, and the ways in which they navigate the intersection of race, gender, and identity in a society that often denies their worth and value. 

The quest for identity is a prominent theme in both The Color Purple by Alice Walker and The Bluest Eye by Toni Morrison. The protagonists in both novels, Celie and Pecola, respectively, struggle to find their place in a society that devalues them based on their race, gender, and socio-economic status. In their search for identity, they confront systemic oppression, familial abuse, and cultural conditioning.

Celie's journey in The Color Purple begins with her being repeatedly raped by her stepfather, leading to her becoming pregnant twice, and having her children taken away from her. She is then forced into a loveless marriage with a physically and emotionally abusive man, Mr., who refers to her as "ugly" and "worthless." However, over the course of the novel, Celie finds her strength and voice, learns to love herself and her sister Nettie, and ultimately reunites with her children. The minor character Shug Avery, a blues singer and Mr.'s mistress, helps Celie to discover her own sexuality and to see herself as a beautiful and valuable human being.

In The Bluest Eye, Pecola Breedlove is a young Black girl who yearns for blue eyes, believing that they will make her more accepted and loved by those around her. She is verbally and physically abused by her parents, who struggle with alcoholism and poverty, and by the other children in her community. Pecola eventually becomes pregnant by her father, resulting in a mental breakdown. The novel ends with her being sent to a mental institution. Morrison uses the minor characters Claudia and Frieda, Pecola's friends, to offer an alternative perspective on beauty and identity and to highlight the damaging effects of societal standards of beauty.

The Color Purple and The Bluest Eye share many similarities in terms of their themes and subject matter. Both novels explore the intersectionality of race, gender, and class, and the ways in which systemic oppression affects individuals and communities. They also highlight the importance of community and connection in the face of adversity. However, there are also significant differences between the two novels. The Color Purple is set in rural Georgia in the early 1900s, while The Bluest Eye is set in 1940s Ohio. Additionally, while The Color Purple is primarily focused on Celie's journey to self-discovery, The Bluest Eye offers a broader critique of American society's obsession with white beauty standards and the impact of that obsession on Black women.

In literature, both The Color Purple and The Bluest Eye have been highly regarded for their portrayal of Black female experiences and their contributions to feminist and African American literature. The Color Purple was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 1983 and has been adapted into an acclaimed stage musical and a film directed by Steven Spielberg. The Bluest Eye, Morrison's first novel, was initially met with mixed reviews but has since been recognized as a seminal work in African American literature and has been adapted for the stage.

In conclusion, The Color Purple and The Bluest Eye both offer compelling portraits of Black women's experiences and the quest for identity in the face of societal oppression. The protagonists, Celie and Pecola, struggle to find their place in a world that devalues them, but ultimately find strength and connection through their relationships with others. The minor characters in both novels offer alternative perspectives on identity and beauty and highlight the impact of systemic oppression on marginalized communities. Despite their similarities, the two novels also offer unique insights into the experiences of Black women in different time periods and cultural contexts. Overall, The Color Purple and The Bluest Eye remain important works of literature that continue to resonate with readers today. At last the point is that 'The Color Purple' and 'The Bluest Eye' can be compared through the lens of identity quest.

Work Cited

Morrison, Toni. The Bluest Eye. Vintage, 1999.

Walker, Alice. Color Purple. Wadsworth Publishing, 2006

Assignment : 209 : Forms of Plagiarism

Forms of Plagiarism

Name - Himanshi Parmar

Semester - 4 (Four)

Roll Number - 8

Email. Id. - himanshiparmar3004@gmail.com

Enrollment number - 4069206420210025

Paper number - 208

Paper name -  Comparative Literature & Translation Studies

Subject Code - 22415

Origin of the word Plagiarism

According to the Marriam Webster Dictionary, The word Plagiarize or plagiarism comes from the Latin word plagiarius, which means “kidnapper.”

The word plagiarism has an interesting origin that can be traced back to the Latin word "plagiarius." In its original meaning, "plagiarius" referred to a kidnapper or someone who abducted a person. The word "plaga" meant a type of net that hunters used to catch game, and eventually, "plagiarius" was extended to include someone who stole words, rather than people, from another.

As the word evolved over time and made its way into the English language, it retained its original reference to kidnapping. When the word was first used in English, it appeared as "plagiary," which was used to describe someone who had committed literary theft or stolen someone else's ideas.

Over time, the term "plagiarism" became more commonly used, and it is now widely recognized as a serious offense in academic and professional circles. In today's society, plagiarism is viewed as a form of intellectual theft that can have serious consequences, including damaged reputations, loss of credibility,and legal repercussions.

The origin of the word plagiarism offers a fascinating glimpse into the history of language and the ways in which words evolve and change over time. While the word may have started out as a reference to kidnapping, its meaning has shifted over the centuries, and it now serves as a warning to writers and thinkers everywhere to be diligent in their efforts to produce original work.

What is Plagiarism?

As per Plagiarism in Research — The Complete Guide [eBook] by  DEEPTANSHU D plagiarism is representing a part of or the entirety of someone else's work as your own. Whether published or unpublished, this could be ideas, text verbatim, infographics, etc. 

Website of Oxford Student says that, Plagiarism is presenting work or ideas from another source as your own, with or without consent of the original author, by incorporating it into your work without full acknowledgement.

According to Scribbr,  Plagiarism means using someone else’s work without giving them proper credit. In academic writing, plagiarizing involves using words, ideas, or information from a source without citing it correctly.

According to Oxford Dictionary plagiarism is the practice of taking someone else's work or ideas and passing them off as one's own.

MLA Handbook for writers of Research Papers noted that, Plagiarism involves two kinds of wrongs, using another person's ideas, information, or expressions without acknowledging that person's work constitutes intellectual theft. Passing off another person’s ideas, information, or expression as your own to get a better grade or gain some other advantage constitutes fraud.

Plagiarism is sometimes a moral and ethical offence rather than a legal one since some instances of plagiarism fall outside the scope of copyright infringement, a legal offense.

Forms of Plagiarism

Here are some forms of plagiarism given in MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (Seventh Edition).

1] Repeating or Paraphrasing Wording :

Repeating or paraphrasing wording is a form of plagiarism that occurs when a writer copies or restates someone else's words or ideas without proper citation. This type of plagiarism can take many forms, such as directly copying and pasting text, paraphrasing sentences or ideas without attribution, or using synonyms to replace key words while retaining the original structure and meaning of the text.For example,

Original Source : Someone is using information about Dickinson’s poems that appears on page 625 of an essay by Wendy Martin in the book Columbia Literary History of the United States.

Plagiarism : Emily Dickinson Firmly Believe that….

Without Plagiarism :  As Wendy Martin has suggested, Emily Dickinson firmly believed that….

In the example provided, the writer has committed plagiarism by paraphrasing the information about Dickinson's poems without citing the original source. Instead of acknowledging Wendy Martin's essay as the source of the information, the writer presents it as their own idea, using different wording but retaining the same meaning.

To avoid this type of plagiarism, it is important to properly cite all sources and use your own words to express ideas and arguments. When taking notes or researching, be sure to record the source of all information and paraphrase it in your own words while still giving credit to the original source. Additionally, when using direct quotes or paraphrasing, use quotation marks and provide a citation for the original source to avoid plagiarism.

Thus, repeating or paraphrasing wording plagiarism involves copying or restating someone else's words or ideas without proper citation or attribution, and it is important to take steps to avoid this type of plagiarism in all writing endeavors.

2] Taking a particularly Apt Phrase

Taking a particularly apt phrase is a form of plagiarism that occurs when a writer uses a phrase or concept that was invented or popularized by someone else without proper citation. This type of plagiarism can be particularly subtle, as the writer may not realize that the phrase they are using was not their own creation. For example,

Original Source : Everyone uses the word language and everybody these days talks about culture… “Languaculture” is a reminder….(Michael Agar, Language Shock: Understanding the Culture of Conversation[New York: Morrow, 1994;60])

Plagiarism : At the intersection of language and culture lies a concept that we might call “Languaculture”.

Without Plagiarism : At the intersection of language and culture lies a concept that Michael Agar has called “Languaculture” (60).

In the example provided, the writer has committed plagiarism by using the term "Languaculture" without giving proper credit to Michael Agar, who coined the term in his book Language Shock: Understanding the Culture of Conversation. By presenting the term as their own idea, the writer is taking credit for Agar's original contribution to the field of language and culture studies.

To avoid this type of plagiarism, it is important to properly cite all sources and give credit to the original creator of any particularly apt phrase or concept. In the example provided, the writer could have avoided plagiarism by acknowledging Agar's contribution and using his exact wording, as shown in the "Without Plagiarism" version of the sentence.

Plagiarism in Research — The Complete Guide [eBook] includes some forms of plagiarism.

3] Global or Complete Plagiarism

Global or complete plagiarism is a form of intellectual theft that involves copying an entire work, without giving proper attribution to the original author. This type of plagiarism can occur in various forms, including copying a book, article, research paper, or even a website. In essence, it is an act of claiming someone else's intellectual property as one's own without any acknowledgment or consent.

Global plagiarism is a serious offense and is considered a violation of copyright laws, which protect the rights of original creators. When an individual is caught engaging in this type of plagiarism, they can face legal action, fines, or even imprisonment,depending on the severity of the offense and the country's laws. Additionally, global plagiarism can also damage an individual's reputation, as it is a clear indication of dishonesty and lack of academic integrity.

One of the main reasons why global plagiarism occurs is due to a lack of understanding of what constitutes plagiarism and the importance of proper citation. Some individuals may be under the impression that copying a work verbatim is acceptable, especially if they are pressed for time or lack the necessary skills to create an original work. However, this is not the case, as even paraphrasing or summarizing someone else's work without proper attribution can also be considered plagiarism.

To avoid global plagiarism, it is essential to give credit where credit is due. This means citing all sources used in a work and acknowledging the original author's contribution to the field. Additionally, individuals can use plagiarism detection tools to check their work for any instances of unintentional plagiarism. Overall, global plagiarism is a serious offense that can have severe consequences and should be avoided at all costs.

4] Verbatim or Direct Plagiarism

According to Plagiarism in Research — The Complete Guide [eBook], this type of Plagiarism happens when someone copy a part of someone else's work, word-to-word, without providing adequate credits or attributions.

Verbatim or direct plagiarism is a form of plagiarism in which an individual copies a part of someone else's work word-for-word without giving proper attribution or citation. In other words, verbatim plagiarism occurs when an individual reproduces an exact sentence or passage from an original source without putting it in quotation marks or acknowledging the original author.

This type of plagiarism can happen intentionally or unintentionally, but in either case, it is a serious offense that can result in legal action and damage to the individual's reputation. Verbatim plagiarism is particularly concerning in research and academic writing, where originality and integrity are essential.

To avoid verbatim plagiarism, it is important to use proper citation and attribution. Whenever an individual uses someone else's words or ideas, they should put them in quotation marks and provide a proper citation, including the author's name, the title of the work, and the page number. Paraphrasing or summarizing someone else's work without proper citation can also be considered verbatim plagiarism if the ideas and structure of the original work are replicated.

One way to avoid verbatim plagiarism is to use plagiarism detection tools, which can identify similarities between an individual's work and other sources. However, it is important to note that these tools are not foolproof and should be used as a complement to proper citation and attribution.

5] Source-based Plagiarism

As per Plagiarism in Research — The Complete Guide [eBook], this type of plagiarism happens when someone tries to mislead or disguise the natural source of their work.

Source-based plagiarism occurs when someone directly copies words, phrases, sentences, or ideas from a source without giving proper attribution or citation. In other words, it is a type of plagiarism where the author uses someone else's work without acknowledging it.

There are various forms of source-based plagiarism, such as verbatim copying, paraphrasing without attribution, and improper citation. Verbatim copying is the most obvious form of plagiarism, where someone copies the exact words from a source and presents them as their own. Paraphrasing without attribution is a more subtle form of plagiarism, where the author rephrases the original text in their own words but fails to give credit to the original author.

Improper citation is another form of source-based plagiarism, where the author cites a source but fails to follow the correct citation format or omits important details, such as the page number or publication date. This can make it difficult for readers to verify the accuracy of the information or locate the original source.

Source-based plagiarism is a serious ethical and academic offense that can have severe consequences, including academic penalties, damage to reputation, and legal action. To avoid source-based plagiarism, it is important to always give proper attribution and citation to any sources used in your work. This includes both direct quotes and paraphrased information. When in doubt, it is better to err on the side of caution and provide more information rather than less.

6] Ghostwriting

Ghostwriting is a type of plagiarism that occurs when someone hires another person to write, edit or proofread their work without giving any credit or acknowledgement. In other words, ghostwriting is when someone else writes the work and the original author passes it off as their own.

This kind of plagiarism raises serious questions about the academic capabilities of the author because it suggests that they are not able to write their own work, and therefore, are not deserving of the credit or recognition that comes with it. Ghostwriting is particularly common in academic and professional settings, where authors may not have the time or skills to complete the work on their own.

While there are some legitimate reasons for using a ghostwriter, such as when a public figure wants to write a book but doesn't have the time or writing ability, it is important for the author to acknowledge the ghostwriter's contributions to the work. Otherwise, it is considered plagiarism and can lead to serious consequences such as loss of credibility, legal action, and even job loss.

In conclusion, ghostwriting is a type of plagiarism that occurs when someone hires someone else to write, edit or proofread their work without giving them credit. It raises serious questions about the academic abilities of the author and can have serious consequences if discovered.

7] Self-plagiarism

Self-plagiarism refers to the act of reusing one's own previously published or submitted work without proper citation or attribution. Even though the author may own the copyright to their work, they cannot reuse the same work in its entirety or significant portions of it without proper citation.

Self-plagiarism can occur in various forms, such as submitting a previously published paper as new work, recycling sections of a previous manuscript without proper citation, or using the same data to support multiple publications without acknowledging the earlier work.

The primary concern with self-plagiarism is that it misrepresents the amount of original work the author has done. It can also be seen as an attempt to inflate the author's publication record or to present a more impressive academic profile. It is also considered unethical because it is an attempt to gain credit for work that has already been recognized or rewarded.

Therefore, it is important for authors to be aware of the potential for self-plagiarism and take steps to avoid it, such as proper citation and attribution of their own work.

8] Accidental Plagiarism

Accidental plagiarism refers to the unintentional act of presenting someone else's work or ideas as your own. It often happens when one is not careful while using sources and forgets to include proper citations. This can occur through unwitting paraphrasing, missing in-text or end-of-text citations, or not using quotation blocks.

Accidental plagiarism can result in serious consequences, including loss of reputation, damaged academic integrity, and even legal actions. However, it is usually considered less severe than intentional plagiarism. To avoid accidental plagiarism, it is essential to proofread carefully and make sure that all sources are appropriately cited. One can also use plagiarism detection software to check their work for any possible instances of plagiarism. By taking these steps, one can ensure that they are giving credit to the original sources and avoiding any form of plagiarism.

Conclusion

In conclusion, plagiarism is a serious offense in academic and professional settings. It can take various forms, such as verbatim plagiarism, mosaic plagiarism, self-plagiarism, source-based plagiarism, ghostwriting, and accidental plagiarism. Each form of plagiarism poses a threat to the originality and integrity of one's work and can result in severe consequences, including loss of credibility, legal action, and academic or professional penalties. Therefore, it is essential to understand and avoid all forms of plagiarism by properly citing and acknowledging sources, utilizing effective research and writing strategies, and utilizing plagiarism detection tools when necessary.

Work Cited

Deeptanshu D, and Dogra Shubham. “What Is Plagiarism? - The Complete Guide [Ebook]” SciSpace, SciSpace Resources, 18 Oct. 2022,https://typeset.io/resources/the-only-plagiarism-guide-you-will-need/.

Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. Seventh ed., Modern Language Association of America, 2015. 

Hornby, Albert Sydney. Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English / [by] A.S. Hornby ; Editor Jonathan Crowther. Oxford, England :Oxford University Press, 1995.

“Plagiarism.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/plagiarism.

"Plagiarism." University of Oxford, 2023, https://www.ox.ac.uk/students/academic/guidance/skills/plagiarism.

Scribbr. “What Is Plagiarism? | Definition and Examples.” Scribbr, www.scribbr.com/category/plagiarism.

Assignment : 208 : Study of “Comparative Literature in India: An Overview of its History” by Subha Chakraborty Dasgupta.

Study of “Comparative Literature in India: An Overview of its History” by Subha Chakraborty Dasgupta.

Name - Himanshi Parmar

Semester - 4 (Four)

Roll Number - 8

Email. Id. - himanshiparmar3004@gmail.com

Enrollment number - 4069206420210025

Paper number - 208

Paper name - Comparative Literature & Translation Studies

Subject Code - 22415

What is Comparative Studies?

The studies which reveal similarities or differences between different markets, countries, aspects of companies, etc. They help to illustrate links and dissimilarities between these different elements. According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, 

"Comparative Literature is the study of the interrelationship of the literature of two or more national cultures, usually of differing languages and especially of the influences of one upon the other."

In another words Comparative Literature is traditionally known as the study of two or more literatures in comparison (English and German, for example) and their multi-dimensional components which may encompass aspects such as the historical, gender, economic, cultural, social, philosophical, religious, and linguistic factors of the distinct cultures being analyzed.

Comparative Literature focuses on the study of literature from different cultures, nations, and genres, and explores relationships between literature and other forms of cultural expression. Comparative Literature poses such questions as, What is the place of literature in society? How does literature as a form change over time, and in relation to other forms of making art? How does literature shape and respond to values, social movements, or political contexts?

Abstract

The essay gives an overview of the trajectory of Comparative Literature in India, focusing primarily on the department at Jadavpur University, where it began, and to some extent the department of Modern Indian Languages and Literary Studies in the University of Delhi, where it later had a new beginning in its engagement with Indian literatures. The department at Jadavpur began with the legacy of Rabindranath Tagore’s speech on World Literature and with a modern poet-translator as its founder.While British legacies in the study of literature were evident in the early years, there were also subtle efforts towards a decolonizing process and an overall attempt to enhance and nurture creativity.

Gradually Indian literature began to receive prominence along with literature from the Southern part of the globe. Paradigms of approaches in comparative literary studies also shifted from influence and analogy studies to cross-cultural literary relations, to the focus on reception and transformation. In the last few years Comparative Literature has taken on new perspectives, engaging with different areas of culture and knowledge, particularly those related to marginalized spaces, along with the focus on recovering new areas of non-hierarchical literary relations.

Entire article was divided into seven parts.

1) The Beginning

2) Indian literature as a comparative literature.

3) Centers of comparative literature studies.

4) Reconfiguration of areas of comparison.

5) Research Directions

6) Interface with translation studies and cultural studies.

7) Non - Hierarchical Connectivity.

1) The Beginning

There were texts focusing on comparative aspects of literature in India, both from the point of view of its relation with literatures from other parts of the world particularly Persian, Arabic and English and from the perspective of inter-Indian literary studies, the multilingual context facilitating a seamless journey from and between literatures written in different languages. The idea of world literature gained ground towards the end of the nineteenth century when in Bengal, for instance, translation activities began to be taken up on a large scale and poets talked of establishing relations with literatures of the world to promote, as the eminent poet translator Satyendranath Dutta in 1904 stated, “relationships of joy” (Dutta 124). The talk by Rabindranath Tagore entitled “Visvasahitya” (meaning “world literature”), given at the National Council of Education in 1907, served as a pretext to the establishment of the department of Comparative Literature at Jadavpur University in 1956, the same year in which the university started functioning.

Tagore used the word “visvasahitya” (world literature), and stated that the word was generally termed “comparative literature”. His idea of “visvasahitya” was complex, marked by a sense of a community of artists as workers building together an edifice, that of world literature. The eminent poet-translator Satyendranath Dutta in 1904 stated, “relationships of joy” (Dutta 124). The talk by Rabindranath Tagore entitled “Visvasahitya” (meaning “world literature”), given at the National Council of Education in 1907, served as a pretext to the establishment of the department of Comparative Literature at Jadavpur University in 1956, the same year in which the university started functioning.

Tagore (639) used the word “visvasahitya” (world literature), and stated that the word was generally termed “comparative literature”. Buddhadeva Bose brought in a very significant modern poet, Sudhindranath Dutta, also well-known for his translation of Mallarmé and his erudition both in the Indian and the Western context, to teach in the department of Comparative Literature. Bose was again a poet, Naresh Guha, who remained as Chairperson of the department for two decades. In an interview given to us in his last years he emphasized the role of the department in fostering an intensely creative environment.

2) Indian Literature as Comparative Literature

Indian literature entered the syllabus in a fairly substantial manner but not from the point of view of asserting national identity.Modern Indian Languages department established in 1962 in Delhi University. In 1974, the department of Modern Indian Languages started a post-MA course entitled “Comparative Indian Literature”. A national seminar on Comparative Literature was held in Delhi University organized by Nagendra, a writer-critic who taught in the Hindi department of Delhi University and a volume entitled Comparative Literature was published in 1977. However, it was only in 1994 that an MA course in Comparative Indian Literature began in the department. As stated earlier the juxtaposition of different canons had led to the questioning of universalist canons right from the beginning of comparative studies in India and now with the focus shifting to Indian literature, and in some instances to literatures from the Southern part of the globe, one moved further away from subscribing to a priori questions related to canon formation.

Older definitions of Indian literature often with only Sanskrit at the centre, with the focus on a few canonical texts to the neglect of others, particularly oral and performative traditions, had to be abandoned. Aijaz Ahmad,says that “the dialectic of unity and difference through systematic periodization of multiple linguistic overlaps, and by grounding that dialectic in the history of material productions, ideological struggles, competing conceptions of class and community and gender, elite offensives and popular resistances, overlaps of cultural vocabularies and performative genres, and histories of orality and writing and print” (Ahmad 265).

Sisir Kumar Das, a faculty member at the department of Modern Indian Languages and Literary Studies, with support from other members of the department and the Sahitya Akademi. The department continues to develop teaching material on various aspects of Indian literature from a comparative perspective, beginning from language origins, manuscript cultures,performative traditions along with painting, sculpture and

architecture, the history of print culture and questions related to modernity. T.S. Satyanath developed the theory of a scripto-centric, body-centric and phono-centric study of texts in the medieval period leading a number of researchers in the department to look for continuities and interventions in the tradition that would again lead to pluralist epistemologies in the study of Indian literature and culture.

3) Centres of Comparative Literature Studies

Comparative Literature was also practiced at a number of centres and departments in the South of India such as in Trivandrum, Madurai Kamaraj University, Bharati dasam University, Kottayam and Pondicherry. The Comparative Literary Studies department was established in the School of Tamil Studies in Madurai Kamaraj University.In Tamil, apart from studies related to the comparison of texts from two different cultures, Classical Tamil texts were compared with texts from the Greek, Latin and Japanese counterpart traditions. Punjabi University, Patiala, Dibrugarh University, Dr Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Sambalpur University, Jawaharlal Nehru University and SNDT Women’s University, Mumbai. In 1986 a new full fledged department of Comparative Literature was established at Veer Narmad South Gujarat University, Surat, where focus was on Indian literatures in Western India. Also in 1999 a department of Dravidian Comparative Literature and Philosophy was established in Dravidian University, Kuppam.

The two merged in 1992 and the Comparative Literature Association of India was formed, which today has more than a thousand members. A core area of comparative literature studies and dissertations, particularly in the South, was taken up as a central area of research by the Visvanatha Kaviraja Institute of Comparative Literature and Aesthetics in Orissa.

4)Reconfiguration of areas of comparison

In the last years of the seventies, along with Indian literatures, Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s One Hundred Years of Solitude became a part of the syllabus with a few other texts from Latin American Literatures and then Literatures from African countries were included. During the nineties, Area Studies papers on African, Latin American, Canadian literatures and literature of Bangladesh were introduced.Area studies components in Chinese and Japanese literatures were also framed, but it was not possible to offer the courses in the absence of specialized faculty members.Components from the diverse Area Studies could possibly have been included as integrated parts of the main curriculum.Right from the beginning of the discipline in India, cross-cultural relations between Indian literatures and European and American literatures had been in focus.

The term “influence” began to be questioned by several scholars and particularly so in colonised countries where there was a tendency to look for influences even when they were non-existent.The focus therefore shifted to reception in books like the one by the present author entitled Bibliography of Reception of World Literature in Bengali Periodicals (1890 – 1990). Reception studies also pointed to historical realities determining conditions of acceptability and hence to complex configurations between literature and history. To give an instance, it seemed that romanticism of a particular kind had an easy access into the realm of Bengali literature, but it was a romanticism that did not accept many of the European elements. The translation of several texts from Sanskrit into German played a role in the emergence of the Romantic movement and then in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries Romanticism came back to India, though in different shades.

At Jadavpur, under the guidance of Amiya Dev, Master’s syllabus was designed that had genres, themes and literary historiography as its core area and this model was more or less followed in many new departments of comparative literature that would come up later. Two groups of papers were offered, one with components from Indian literature at the centre and the other with Western literature.The division was not a happy one as students wanted to engage with both in order to have nuanced understandings of the interplay between local, national and transnational forces. Rudyard Kipling’s Kim and Rabindranath Tagore’s Gora, were taken up, or sometimes in courses entitled Literary Transactions one looked more precisely at the tradition of Reason and Rationalism in European and Indian literatures of the eighteenth and the nineteenth centuries.

5)Research directions

The late nineties and the early twenties were a period of great expansion for Comparative Literature research in different parts of the country with the University Grants Commission opening its Special Assistance Programme for research in university departments. The English department of Calcutta University for instance, received assistance to pursue research on literary relations between Europe and India in the nineteenth century. Saurashtra University, Rajkot, took up the theme of Indian Renaissance and translated several Indian authors into English, studied early travelogues from Western India to England and in general published collections of theoretical discourse from the nineteenth century. The notion of derived categories for instance, was quite often charged with a host of other significations, as for example, in the case of Romanticism as a term for periodization. Romanticism had very different dimensions in the Indian context and necessitated a different reading within a continuum that situated it often at the source of modernity.

Under the Special Assistance programme the department also conducted eight inter-literary translation workshops translating texts from one Indian language to another without the mediation of English, a process not very common in the field of translation at the time. Among the projects planned under the inter-Asian series was one on travelogues from Bengal to Asian countries and here an annotated bibliography that could provide an initial foundation for the study of inter literary relations was published. A second project involved working on the image of Burma in Bengali and Oriya literature in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Under a different grant, the tradition of Bhakti and Sufi were studied together and a volume was published.

6)Interface with Translation Studies and Cultural Studies

Comparative Literature in the country in the 21st century engaged with two other related fields of study, one was Translation Studies and the other Cultural Studies.Comparative Literature’s relationship with Translation Studies was not a new phenomenon for one or two departments or centres, such as the one in Hyderabad University.Comparative Literature today have courses on Translation or Translation Studies.The department of Comparative Literature at Jadavpur University today has a Centre for the Translation of Indian Literatures.Comparative Literature also offer modules on Comparative Cultural Studies where key texts in the global field are juxtaposed with related texts from the Indian context. MPhil course on the subject at Jadavpur University highlights changing marginalities, ‘subcultures’ and movements in relation to contemporary nationalisms and globalization, and also sexualities, gender and the politics of identity. Cultural Studies may also be a key component in different kinds of interdisciplinary courses within the discipline.

Delhi University takes up the theme of city and village in Indian literature and goes into representations of human habitat systems and ecology in literature, looks for concepts and terms for such settlements, goes into archaeological evidences and the accounts of travellers from Greece, China, Persia and Portugal to demonstrate the differences that exist at levels of perception and ideological positions.

7)Non-hierarchical connectivity

Comparative Literature in the country today has multifaceted goals and visions in accordance with historical needs, both local and planetary. As in the case of humanities and literary studies, the discipline too is engaged with issues that would lead to the enhancement of civilizational gestures, against forces that are divisive and that constantly reduce the potentials of human beings. Kumkum Sangari in a recent article called “co-construction”,a process anchored in “subtle and complex histories of translation, circulation and extraction” (Sangari 50). comparators work with the knowledge that a lot remains to be done and that the task of the construction of literary histories, in terms of literary relations among neighbouring regions, and of larger wholes, one of the primary tasks of Comparative Literature today has perhaps yet to begin.

Work Cited

“Comparative.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam Webster,https://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/comparative.

Subha Dasgupta, Chakraborty. “Comparative Literature in India: An Overview of Its History.” cwliterature.org, Google , May 2016,http://cwliterature.org/uploadfile/2016/0711/20160711020042997.pdf.